RE-EXAMINING THE BRIEF THERAPY CONTRIBUTIONS IN PHOBIA, PANIC ATTACKS AND ANXIETY DISORDER´S TREATMENT
Maximiliano Korstanje*
Abstract
In a time wherein anxiety disorders and panic attacks are growing because of many reasons, the present piece of research is aimed at stimulating the criticism and debate about a topic that concern public opinion in world wide. The security perception and risk on journeys not only depend upon innerward psychological issues but also constitute an issue which merits to be investigated in depth. With an historical background in mind, we have demonstrated that fear of traveling comprises a phenomenon that has been present in Rome as well as in other Non-European cultures. Next, we examined critically the diverse contributions of psychoanalysis, experimentalism and system psychology in the study of phobias and fears. In general, an issue which merits being empirically studied in future approaches.
Key Words: Phobia, Travel, Anxiety Disorder, Psychoanalysis, Experimentalism, Systems Psychology.
Introduction
In recent decades tourism has been transformed in one of more important industries of the World. This growing activity was accompanied by scientific revolution in transport fields placed on the middle of XXth. (Getino, 2002) (Khatchikian, 2000) (Korstanje, 2007) (Schluter, 2003) (Wallingre, 2007). Nowadays, many people see in the travel a way of resting and taking emotional distance from logic of work. Aside from this, many others manifested serious psychological problems in travelling beyond the security of home. Even though, this pathological behavior does not have official statistic sources it is growing epidemically in the urban population of industrialized societies. Of course, whereas considerable efforts were devoted to the study of travels and tourist experience, less attention was given to these pathologies in social psychology. In consequence, the present paper explores theoretically the main contributions and limitations that show the different waves in research of phobia, panic attacks and anxiety disorders.
Initial Discussion
Historically, one of oldest antecedent in this matter is registered in Ancient Rome. In spite of all security at his disposal, Octavianus-Augustus Caesar was afraid of travelling at nights as a result of a natural accident with a ray, which was close to take his life. From that day onwards, this emperor refused to travel when weather conditions have not been the best (Suetonius, XC, p. 104). For other hand, an interesting analysis of Vicente Dominguez (2003) in Greece leads us to understand that the ethimological origin of phobia comes from phóbos - although the meaning of this term had varied on the time-. Examining Greek classic literature, we realize that phóbos is originally introduced by Homer in the Iliada associated to other older term Phemobai which connoted to a withdrawal in a battle. For instance, classical mythology refers to Phóbos as the son of terrible Ares (God of the War) insofar this word might be applied on military contexts. Notwithstanding, afterwards Homer phóbos turned mysteriously into a different meaning closer to we use today when refer to fears (Dominguez, 2003: 662). Up to date, in modern Greece phóbos is still utilized indistinctively to mean a pure fear or an extreme terror.
Some other studies in ethnology and anthropology revealed that many tribes consider foreigners as taboo and elaborate a combination of rituals each time a warrior should be far away from home as well as a foreigner traveler arrives to the heart of tribe by first time (Frazer, 1993) (Albó, 1992) (Fernandez Juarez, 2000). Following this, the principle of hospitality works as a mechanism capable to reduce the existing anxiety and anguish at time of abandoning the home. Of course, a recent-research conducted recently by White and White proved that people remain in psychological connection with home whenever they find far away. Whatever the case may be, these kinds of researches demonstrate not only "fear of travelling" is present in all societies beyond its own complexity or simplicity but also there is a gap in tourism fields that merits to be fulfilled. Possibly, 11 September event had multiplied the fears as well as panic attacks on consumer's mind but this looks to be a surface manifestation of a much more deep-seated issue.
Terrorism, Tourism and Transportation.
On 11 September of 2001 an airplane impacted against World Trade Center in one of more terrible unexpected attacks in the core of United States of America. Undoubtedly, this event marked a before and after in the history of civil aviation in such country. From that day on, a question raised ¿why a commercial airplane has been used as a weapon towards civil population?. In regards to this, French ethnologist M. Augé argued that "terrorists" utilized a mass means of transportation in response to the post-modernity's advent. From his point of view, Western is characterized by the common usage of modern means of transport as well as fluid channels wherein information go through. This style of life has given origin to a new type of site which more visible features are the predominant of anonymity, alienation and social disintegration. These places are paradoxically called non-places and this term comprises airports, shoppings, and bus or train stations. Towards the end of his book, Augé contends convincingly that as much as modernity advances throughout the globe more aggressive should be an answer to the rationalization advance; in other words, the vulnerability of Western lies in its own channels of transportations and information (Augé, 1996).
Noteworthy that whole studies have been devoted in emphasizing the negative aspects which affect tourism such as wars, ethnic riots or terrorist attacks (Blake and Sinclair, 2003) (Lepp and Gibson, 2003) (Bonham et al, 2006) (Dominguez, Burguette and Bernard, 2003) (Sonmez, 1998) (Sonmez and Graefe, 1998) (Robson, 2008) (Drakos and Kutan, 2001) (Enders, 1992) (Weber, 1998) (Santana Talavera, 2006) but less attention was given to the fear of travelling and flying from a psychological perspective. For that reason, the short piece is aimed at discussing critically how the fear works summarizing the contributions and limitations of psychoanalysis, systemic psychology and Attachment Theory. No matter than this, as an interesting article published in the New York Times states after the episode of September in 2001, fears in fliers have been multiplied notably. In sum, "according to the National Institute of Mental Health, the percentage of Americans who have a fear of flying so intense that it qualifies as a phobia or anxiety disorder and keeps them off airplanes is closer to 6.5 percent" (Murphy, 2007). But ¿how can we explain this general panic indeed?, ¿are we all prey of a neurotic society?.
Psychology of emotions
Psychology and Social psychology for more than four decades have interested in studying the roots of emotions as well as under what contexts they appear. From this perspective, emotion still represents an unresolved and unexplored issue for these disciplines. One of main criticism at time of reviewing a book initially published in 1996 is the aging but we strongly believe that that is worth our efforts and time. Under such a context, the book authored by K. T Strongman focuses and summarizes the different approaches and limitations each one of scholars faced at time of addressing a topic of this nature. On the introductory chapter, Strongman argued that most of the behavioral accounts in emotion are simple considering the extent of which those propositions should be taken in abstract. These types of theories are quite restrictive and fail to explain in depth the diverse pattern of emotions people experience in daily life. For other hand, there is an enormous amount of studies into the physiology of emotions that are still being covered. That way, the role played by this discipline has been significance since W. James on. Under these lines, our author writes "again, as a whole, these theories do fulfill many of the general criteria believed to be usefully in assessing a good theory. They summarize the existing knowledge, at least which has a neurophysiologic or biological base" (Strongman, 1998: 58).
After further examination, Strongman suggests that phenomenological and existential research in explaining how the angst works, are related to the appearance of Kierkegaard more than 100 years back. In sum, he made a distinctive observation between fear and angst still to that made psychoanalysts before and after Freud. Basically, the fears are wakening up by a certain risk while angst just refers to the resurgence of a broader and diffuse threat. That follows, angst only appears after the development of self-awareness permit a person to forming the self-hood. It is not surprising the text turn a very difficult to read after more than 150 theories are analyzed and commented by Strongman. In basic, the substantial contribution of this researcher in the work-frame of emotion is undebatable. For that, we draw the present scheme for further understanding:
Even if there is not consensus in scholars, emotions should considered in combination with sentiments, event though had no the same inception. The behavior is guided implicitly by emotions since it represent a stimuli for risk perception or drives. For example, fear advices the body that a risk is imminent while anger surfaces in case of deprivation. Cognitive aspects are very important in explaining how works the emotions. The relationship between emotion and cognition are not dependant. Not only emotion does not precede cognition but also both remain independent. The emotional elements of personality form an interrelated system which the innate influences can be articulated hieratically. It is often observable normal relations between some emotion like anger, fear and love combining the results with different pattern of personalities. Ultimately, Strongman argues that there is an interesting discussion about the origin of emotion, for scholars they are biological but for others are cultural. If this prompts the person to be at the mercy of the influences of learning, it is introverted, and then such a person is more prone to angst or anxiety.
A work of this nature turns in an obligated manual for all who makes from emotion their object in study. "Emotion is always there in some form o another, an integral part of existence. Yet, as the plethora of theory attests, it is difficult to define and distinguish from non emotions. More than this, because of its iniquitousness it can be approached from any direction within psychology, and from quite a few in related disciplines"(ibid: 232). Taking his cue from Lazarus's contributions, Strongman considers that emotions are part of broader system suggesting that although they can explain the human behavior, they are not necessary functional to deeper scientific explanation. Lazarus argued that a conceptualization of feelings should be tough, that way he termed "response syndrome". However, ¿how can a culture impact in emotions?.
To respond this question under the perspective of this aforementioned scholar, we must also admit that culture determine psychological behavior in fourth manners: 1) thru the way we perceive a stimuli, 2) by altering emotional expressions, 3) by shaping social bondages and reality judgments, and lastly 4) in ritualizing the behavior. For that reason, Strongman reminds us that "appraisal is a core concept in Lazarus's view. We are evaluators: we evaluate each stimulus that we encounter with respect to its personal relevance and significance. This is cognitive activity with emotion as par of it …each emotional reaction is a function of a particular kind of cognition or appraisal. He recognizes emotion at the three levels of behavioral, physiological or cognitive (subjective), sees each as important and believes that the pattern that might exist between them is a distinguishing feature of emotion" (ibid: 72).
In recognition to this, coping is in human habits a disposition to adapt and responding to a specific stimulus whose reactions permit the psychological ego to interact with environment. The potential successes or failures in this matter will be determined by our emotions and both fluctuate towards similar directions. All information our mind receives is interpreting constantly and reinterpreting as positive or negative depending our sense of reality. In placing this theory in forma terms, Lazarus and Strongman realize that the best way of summarizing the contributions of this theory in psychological fields is in five points which are self-explanatory:
1) A systemic perspective allows understanding researchers that the process of emotion involves many variables set up independently from ego. These variables consist in causal antecedents, mediating processes, immediate emotional impact and long term consequences.
2) Emotion comprises two different principles, the process and the structure. The first is related to the change we daily perceive while the second refers to the stability needed for a person can create linkages with its environment.
3) From our birth to our death, the development principle points out that emotion is being changed continuously determined by social and biological issues.
4) However, any emotion can be distinguished from other by means of the specificity principle. For example, love and fear may have a similar intensity but the object of such an emotions are different as well as the involved reactions. Whereas in case of love, the ego will try a rapprochement, fears suggest the odd to the withdrawal.
5) Relational meaning principle suggests that each emotion is defined by a sole relational meaning, since for each one there is a core relational theme which is to do with the harms and benefits that appraise each personal-environmental instance.
Under such a circumstance, the process of decision-making is accomplished by mean of appraisal concerning goal relevance, congruency and ego-empowerment. In other terms, they, broadly speaking, are configured by motivations. Finally, Strongman states that "the relationship between the person and the environment promotes both appraisal and coping, a view which leads Lazarus to suggest that a new level of theory -relational meaning- becomes involved. The task of appraisal is to integrate the two sets of antecedent's variables - personality and environmental- into a relational meaning based on the relevance of what is happening for the person's well being. So the personal interests and adaptation become crucial to emotion. Lazarus goes further to suggest that if personal harm or benefit is implicated, then the emotion that results will include an innate action tendency. This, in its turn, provides each emotion with its unique physiological aspect. The coping process may be in accord with the action tendency, or may conflict with or even dominate it, but will also influence it and the physiological pattern" (ibid: 73).
We had so far tried to summarize this brilliant work as objective as possible emphasizing in the importance of an interrelation between biological and emotional issues. For the other hand, it is very interesting the section Strongman develops the contribution of other Social Science such as Anthropology or Sociology in the study of emotions in other cultures. In a basic issue, emotion is a universal phenomenon that involved all human beings and perhaps one of topics more difficult to understand and research scientifically. This was concerned philosophy in western history from many centuries back in authors like Ryle, Aristotle, Plato or Lyons. In brief, versed in a clear and beauty style of writing, Strongman leads us by the world of emotions from different perspectives, philosophical, anthropological, psychological and historical. A material that remains accessible not only for scholars but also for anyone who like to study seriously the inception and effect of emotion in social life. One of the best reports we had never read before regarding emotions and feeling issues.
Psychoanalytic theory
As it is well-known in the core of psychoanalytic literature, Sigmund S. Freud -who had affected him-self by a phobia of trains-, supported his straightforward contributions on "little Hans's case". As previously explained, phobia is a concept present in ancient Greece and Rome but Freud has been the first scholar who took into account and documented its real implications and consequences on patients thanks to the diverse letters sent by Hans's father to him. Even though, in the line of history psychoanalysts have discussed from many perspectives how phobia works; almost all of them are sure that not only Freud founded a new discipline to explore the human mind but also laid the foundations for a body of information regarding a clinical background in the treatment of these disorders (Korstanje, 2008).
After further examination, Freud argued that Hans, a boy 5 years old, manifested behind his sentiment of fear a resistance to loose the love of his mother. The birth of his sister in combination with a competitive liaison with father generated an ambivalent feelings initiated by a previous principle of castration. The coexistence in mind of two antagonist feelings as love and hate generates a tries to prevent the personality disintegration (dissociation). As the previous argument given, fear is lived internally as a response to avoid self-destruction of the ego in accordance to extrapolation to an external object, which helps the individual condensing the ambiguity of its feelings (Freud, 1998: 11-19). That way, other aspects like fantasy or angst plays an important role in determining the previous state for a phobia appearance. Most exactly, this point was respected and criticized by other scholars such as Klein (1987), Ward (2001), Winnicott (1996) and Bleichmar (1991).
Like Levobici (1988) had noted long time back, psychoanalysis not only proposes that the genesis of fears are born in the subject experience of personality but also in almost all cases correspond to early socialization in child-hood. This posture demonstrates some limitations at time of explaining to what an extent outsider events (like 11 September) may trigger collective states of panics. In opposition to others psychoanalysts, I. Ward assumes that Freud's contributions lead us to draw a conceptual bridge between biology (human) and anthropology (culture). Whether Freudian point of view is correct, unforeseeable events like the 11 Sept. can traumatize collective imaginary insofar the society feels obliged to create an external object to transfer all ambivalent feelings toward to a minority.
Thus, ethnic minorities sometimes play a pivotal role in assuming the faults as scape-goats. Like Muslim community in United States after World Trade Center's disaster in 2001, Seago (1947) demonstrated that after the attacks at Pearl Harbor's fleet in 1945, Americans developed many negative stereotypes and prejudices against Japaneses. Once finished the Second World War, such a hate against Germans and Japaneses in American society has been transferred to Russians -if we read the contribution of MacIver and Page to prejudice study- (Mac-Iver and Page, 1966: 434). Similar remarks apply on the case of Falkland conflagration between Argentina and United Kingdom in 1982 (Brown, 1998). As a whole, external events seem to be linked to a larger imaginary who claims an expiation ritual process with the end for preventing potential social fragmentation. A sentiment of immense gratitude is owed to Psychoanalysis in the study of phobias and fears. However, it has not been the only one which devoted attention in this interesting topic. In turn, experimentalism efforts in demonstrating under empirical working basis the libidinal liaison was a pre-requisite for the inception and application of Attachment and Secure base-Theory.
Experimental and Secure Base concerns
Existant body of research demonstrated that babies experience fear to strangers once a couple of months older. To be more exact, no before than two months age-old infants have not been felt anxiety because of uncertain situations while an experiment carried out by Bayley with 61 infants showed that anguish and risk's perception emerge after eleventh month. Usually, children learn that care-taker can provide with food and security, whenever an outsider stimuli puts at risk their own environment (Stagner and Solley, 1980: 111). For other hand, other empirical study -in Jersild et al and well-documented in Stagner and Solley- suggested that insofar a child is growing, he or she has more probability to fright against animals and external threats while fears against noises and interaction with strangers are being reduced in the life span (ibid: 111).
Based on the ethological observations of Lorenz and Tinbergen -who demonstrated that dukes projected on their mother a durable liaison for all their life- J. Bowlby demonstrated that there is a linkage of dependence between mother and child. Following this thought, he applied an experimental model in children to compare different patterns in behaviors or substantial shifts when mother is close and far-away. A couple of years before Bowlby´s insights, M. Ainsworth conducted a research in United States and Africa (Uganda) wherein she observed the involved children shifted its humor and behavior depending upon mother being close or far. After further examination, Ainsworth argued that parents assistance as long as early first month of live will determine the typology of attachment for the rest of their life span (Ainsworth, 1989).
For another hand, Anderson in 1972 carried out an experiment in children 3 and 2 years old with the end to verify that oddly a child moved from its mother no far than 62 meters until return. Beyond the limits of eyes, children often call for their own mothers crying or starting a quest in an exploratory way. This dataset led Bowlby by inferring that angst depends upon exploration and probabilities to come back safely to home. Whether children have been grown up in an atmosphere where all needs have been satisfied, they have more likelihood to explore long physical distances in an adult stage than others of material and emotional support (Anderson, 1972) (Bowlby, 1989).
A couple of year later, other works in charge of Mary Main in 1985 demonstrated certain correlations between experience and performance in parents. In general, all who consulted parents stated to be grown up in conditions of well-being displayed a much more concern in dealing with their sons in comparison with all who declared not to be assisted and protected during their childhood. Main classified the attachment in three types: a) secure-autonomous, b) insecure-disregarded and c) insecure-concerned (Main, 2001). These cases well-documented by Bowlby (1989) epistemologically permitted him to make distance from inductive psychoanalysis's method and propose a new theory based on Attachment between infants and adults. The resistance of psychoanalysis in accepting this new theory was notable. In fact, other study carried out in children by Schafer and Crook (1979) validated a previous hypothesis as to what first steps no later than one year old look to be linked to the bondage between infants and their care-takers.
As a whole, Attachment and Secure base theory sit precedent in the study of fears with a crossed-nation comparison of other experiments in the world. As much as the evidence shows, children socialized in homes wherein cooperation and fraternization were predominant felt more security in exploring remotes sites than others who were subject to indifference and unhappiness. Even though resisted by psychoanalyst's circles, the results obtained by Bowlby had had certain resemblance with others towering exponents such as false-self in Winnicott (1960), borderline personality in Kohut (1971) and schizophrenic-syndrome in Fairbairn (1962). Notwithstanding, the secure base theory presents some limitations that merit to be hereby re-considered; first of all, Bowlby and his collaborators have forgotten that each society has specified cultural issues which prevent from a homogenous interpretation of Attachment theory. It is imperative to mention that even though many researchers had applied this theory in their studies crossing the cultures of the globe, their findings have been contradictory. Some surveys conducted in Germany in a long-range sample considered the insecure-disregarded as a standard type while in Japan there have been a predominance of a secure-autonomous type. As a result of this, no homogeneous body of research information is reflected in international literature.
Secondly, it is often hipotethizised that habits acquired during early socialization will accompany the life span of subject but with no scientific basis. Of course, Bowlby believes that punishment generates anxiety, hostility, aggression and culprit regardless the role that play a person in social life. Culturally, in Spain Bullfights gained more recognition and acceptance than Argentina or Mexico; under that context, the degree of aggression will very well vary on country and culture. Even though Bowlby´s Secure base theory demonstrated convincingly that children are influenced in their exploration-related steps by their mother in an early stage, there is no substantial evidence to affirm this would be a universal pattern.
Systems Psychology
Following these illustrative lines, systems psychology will not question the previous legacy of psychoanalysis and Bowlby´s insights, but will introduce new elements into consideration. Centered on the idea that causality does not exist, Ceberio and Watzlawick determine that pathologies and social realm should not be considered separately at time of analysis phobia. From their point of view, psychoanalysis took a wrong pathway in determining the roots of phobias (Ceberio and Watzlawick, 1998).
By the way, a set of interesting forewords no less than in charge of Marcelo Ceberio and Paul Watzlawick introduce readers towards the text of Giorgio Nardone entitled Fears, Panics and Phobias, a brief therapy, published roughly a one decade back. Even if a review of an older book is not sometimes recommendable, we strongly believe that it is important not to loose the sight on the necessity of recovering these kinds of works for the development of Knowledge. This book explores initially on the circularity concept which defies linear causality between effects and causes that characterized the modern Science.
Once and once again throughout his book, Nardone emphasizes on the reasons behind the panic attacks, phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorders are polysemic and circumscribed to a lot of previous working definitions. Under such a circumstance, Nardone argues that psychological structures pursue complex and unabated interests. At the time, psychologists should examine pathologies of the patients, accessing only to a memoirist past which is only elaborated by subjects following symbolic and emotional dynamics. This recall is no other thing than inner-wards keep-sake irrespective of the facts as they have been occurred. In other contexts, by means of a professional diagnosis, patients are involuntarily induced by therapist to create a self-depiction which impedes to resolve their problem. Following this, systems psychology sets forward to examine circularly the pathologies focusing on the manifestation of symptoms quite aside from the reasons that generates the roots of such a disorder.
By keeping with the research of fears and phobias, Nardone criticizes previous contributions of Psychoanalysis that saw their origin in an unresolved trauma from childhood. From 152 studied cases, Nardone said that only 3 corresponded to an earlier trauma whilst 2 of 3 of these afore-mentioned participants admitted to receive psychoanalyst's treatment. Second criticism is against psychiatry which leaned on supposing that the phobia lies in the excess of serotonin in brain as well as a glitch in lobe: locus caeruleus. Third argument questioned by Nardone seems to be that phobias and panic attacks are associated to over-protector homes or weaker social and familiar bondages during life span. From this point of view, Nardone acknowledges that from 152 persons, 91 participants (60%) demonstrated to have physical and emotional independence from their parents. Ultimately, fourth critiques are directed against mecanisist paradigm which supports the idea enrooted in the belief that there is a bridge between phobic reaction and stimuli based on risk behavior. Nardone explains that 68% of 152 persons stated not to have a previous reactions or episodes before than the crisis.
The constitution of phobia does not seem to be the fear in such but the fear of fear. Whenever a person assumes its own inabilities to come across with risks and threats or in controlling all variables of environment, this feed a posterior sentiment of impotence. Of course, the growing of uncertainness alternating individual flights with a request of help to familiars deteriorates the self-esteem of subject worsening its own synthomatology. The threshold between acts and message are an interesting point of analysis in this problem. Cases of panic attacks and phobia are often characterized by friends and familiars who come to the aid of their loved one but replies with a double-bind message: "I help you because I love you but you are ill", the "fear of fear" creates in the subject the enough degree of entropy which does not allow breaking the bubble. Under such a context, patients reduce their capacity of exploration and withdraw in the core of their homes wherein feel looking for further security.
Unlike other cases, obsessive-compulsive disorders are linked to the elaboration of symbolic rituals which temporarily alleviates the symptoms but reinforce the vicious circle. By means of technique of induction therapists should impose to patient a new structure to perceive a safer realm. As Nardone assumes, his brief therapy opens the door for resistance of change to be successfully broken. This process comprises four stages ranging from 1 to 12 cessions. On the successive chapters of this book, Nardone describes the different steps in the protocol which should be followed for achieving the discharge. Providing with a bunch of clinical cases and examples, Nardone insists in the efficacy and efficiency of his method for the total remission of pathology. Preliminary steps to initiate this therapy consist in reversing the influence of fears diverting patient's attention against a curious but unimportant issue whereas in other direction which is not perceived but decisive in the process. Finally, the treatment culminates with the explanation of goals and steps accomplished during the diverse cessions.
Whatever the case may be, there exists some ethic issues which should be re-visited in the application of brief-therapy and systems psychology. At a first glance, epistemologically, we run across with some contradictions between introductory chapters and posterior development. Secondly, Nardone insists that systems wave is not interested in explaining the origin of pathology. The importance of dynamic replaces to the causality of the phenomena. As Nardone assumes, a method like this in practice has higher rates of effectiveness. The contradiction of Nardone is that the quest for the remission appears to be feasible only whether the therapist can obtain a clear diagnosis and explanation respecting to the causes and consequences of the pathology. Of course, this is a sheer problem that Nardone does not resolve ¿how can a person deploys strategies or course of actions without understanding the underlying logic of the trouble?, ¿why not an explanation by respecting to the how turns an explanation about the why?. After this, immediately other question is raised: ¿does systems paradigm back the roots of experimental method inadvertently?.
To put this in brutally, our Italian researcher criticizes to experimental method due to a linear causality and sets forward other alternative instrument aimed at describing the circular multi-causality with basis on self-poietic entropy. The problem here is that Nardone confuses linearity with experimentalism. In fact, experimental method does not correspond with the search of univocal variables but validity or falsation of previous hypothesis. For further understanding let us readers to remind that Systems psychology has recently born in Standford University a couple of decades ago and made a real revolution in the world of epistemology at time of introducing adaptations of second law of thermodynamics issues in psychology and Social Sciences. One of their most exponents have been Gregory Bateson, Paul Watzlawick, Giorgio Nardone and Marcelo Ceberio but from that day onwards present no fewer obstacles to discuss with other disciplines the principle of circularity.
Basing their doctrine on the idea that a system is not the sum of its parts, this stream considered the homeostasis and entropy as two of main dynamics overt systems show. Their contributions in clinical therapy are often oriented to stress that patients belongs to a broader system or nets as the family or the circle of friends. From this point of view, the afflicted person represents the peak of a deeper iceberg which should be examined by the therapist. In a sharp contrast with long therapies characterized psychoanalysis, systems psychology presents an alternative shorter and effective pathway. With a sample of 152 patients, Nardone experimentally tests his hypotheses with cases in treatment. Nowadays, the Systems psychology is being criticized because it is centered on a misunderstanding about experimentalism with positivism.
It is not necessary to go too far away from realizing that clinical studies have been coined in the cradle of experimentalism, which very well compared certain stimuli, placebos and reactions in experimental and control groups. This is not the case of positivism which emphasized on the univocal effects of variables in social and natural life. Once explained in detail the epistemological differences between positivism and experimentalism we will addressee the second limitation of G. Nardone in regards to ethic fields applied on clinical treatment. For instance, in the review of this insight book we find terms associated to "manipulation" or "imposition" which denotes a strong ethical critique. From Nardone´s turn of mind, the vicious circle is a prerequisite towards the impossibility of patient to overcome the trouble with its own resources. This is the reasons as to why the goals of therapy are revealed no before than the end of treatment.
This seems to be a product of stoicism which emphasizes on the knowledge as a mechanism capable to solve glitches and patient as a victim who is unable to see how operates the pathology in its life. Regarding the criticism against systems therapy because of unethical, Nardone replied to this arguing that his method differentiates from other for a much more efficacy in the results as well as a more rapid remission which save suffering, time and money for patients. However the line between efficacy and the binomy between the Hegelian logic of master and slave is very fine. This point leaves us in an ethical dilemma surrounding the process of control and hegemony between systems psychology and American pragmatism. Underpinned in the proposition that the patients play a secondary role in the process of remission because they are not able to see the door, System psychology emphasizes on the figure of therapist as the commander who will arrive the ship to a safer port. This mythical archetype is combined by sentiment of pragmatism typical of United States which misjudges efficacy and speed with ethic. It is important to scramble with a more humanistic clinical psychology that valorizes the integrity of human beings quite aside from efficiency and utilitarianism of market.
Conclusion
The present piece of research is aimed at stimulating the criticism and debate about a topic that concern public opinion in world wide. The security perception and risk on journeys not only depend upon innerward psychological issues but also constitute an issue which merits to be investigated in depth. With an historical background in mind, we have demonstrated that fear of traveling comprises a phenomenon that has been present in Rome as well as in other Non-European cultures. Furthermore, we have accomplished a critical review of three main streams that dealt with this matter scientifically. Quite aside from limitations and conceptual problems of every involved stream, we emphasized on the contributions and epistemological contradictions of system paradigm which argues that linear causality of experimentalism should be revisited. Basing their doctrine on the idea that a system is not the sum of its parts, this stream considered the homeostasis and entropy as two of main dynamics overt systems show. Their contributions in clinical therapy are oriented to stress that patients belongs to a broader system as the family which we are not able to study. From this point of view, afflicted person represent the peak of a deeper iceberg which should be examined by the therapist. However, some points seem to be contradictory in the development of this matter. At a first glance, systems psychology does not differentiate the positivism from experimentalism. Secondly, serious criticism is put on the brief therapy because it does not specify to patients the goals and steps at the beginning of treatment.
References
*Antropólogo y candidato a Doctor en Psicología Social por la Universidad John. F. Kennedy, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Trabaja su tesis doctoral sobre el miedo a viajar en contextos de ruralidad y urbanidad en Argentina. Se especializa en el estudio del ocio y el turismo como sí también fenómenos derivados como las diásporas y migraciones
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